Kidney stones are hard objects made of minerals and salts in urine. The development of kidney stones occurs through the accumulation of minerals like calcium, along with oxalate or uric acid in urine.

Chemically, black pigment stones is the polymerized bilirubin with metals. Therefore, environments suitable for the formation of black pigment stones are conditions that allow chemical polymerization ...

Many theories have been proposed. Unfortunately, no one mechanism fully explains the cause in all stone formers. In one commonly accepted model, a period of abnormal crystalluria is required. For ...